Table of Contents – SCOPE Bioenergy and Sustainability

Section I	i
Foreword	iii
SCOPE Bioenergy & Sustainability Contributors	v
Acknowledgments	xi

Section II - Summaries	3
Executive Summary	4
1. Technical Summary	8
1.1 Introduction	12
1.2 Sustainable Development and Innovation	13
1.3 Global Climate Change	14
1.4 Planning the Expansion of Bioenergy	15
1.4.1 Integrated Policy to Maximize Bioenergy Benefits and Positive Synergies	17
1.4.2 Sustainable and Reliable Biomass Supply	20
1.4.3 Developing Sustainable Biorefinery Systems	21
1.4.4 Bioenergy Governance	23
1.4.5 Bioenergy Certification and Social Aspects	24
1.4.6 Financing the Bioenergy Effort	24
1.4.7 Bioenergy Trade Expansion	25
1.5 Conclusions	25

2. Bioenergy Numbers	28
2.1 Introduction	29
2.2 Bioenergy Production Now	29
2.2.1 Current Feedstocks	30
2.2.2 Current Land Use	33
2.2.3 Current Conversion Technologies	33
2.2.3.1 Conventional Ethanol	33
2.2.3.2 Ethanol and Flexible Fuel Vehicle Engines	35
2.2.3.3 Biodiesel	35
2.2.3.4 Biodiesel Vehicle Engines	36
2.2.3.5 Lignocellulosic Ethanol	36
2.2.3.6 Aviation Biofuels	37
2.2.3.7 Renewable Diesel	37
2.2.3.8 Bioelectricity	37
2.2.3.9 Biogas	38
2.2.3.10 Biogas Vehicles	40
2.2.3.11 Heat	40
2.2.4 Emissions	40
2.3 Bioenergy Expansion	42
2.3.1 Land Availability	42
2.3.2 Biomass Production Potential	44
2.3.3 Bioenergy Costs	46
2.3.4 Biomass Supply in the Face of Climate Change	47
2.3.5 Impacts of Bioenergy Expansion on Biodiversity and Ecosystems	47
2.3.6 Indirect Effects	49
2.3.7 Financing	49
2.3.8 Trade	50
2.4 Bioenergy Added Benefits to Social and Environmental Development	50
2.4.1 Biomass Carbon Capture and Sequestration	50
2.4.2 Improvement of Soil Quality	52
2.4.3 Increasing Soil Carbon	53
2.4.4 Pollution Reduction	55
2.4.5 Social Benefits	55

Section III - Synthesis Chapters	59
3. Energy Security	60
Highlights	61
3.1 Introduction	62
3.2 Key Findings	62
3.2.1 Understanding Energy Security and Bioenergy	62
3.2.1.1 Availability and Markets	64
3.2.1.2 Access and Energy Security	66
3.2.1.3 Usability and Processing	66
3.2.1.4 Stability and Storage	68
3.2.2 Interconnectivity with Key Goals and Policies	69
3.2.2.1 The Food and Security Nexus	71
3.2.2.2 Economics, Markets and Investment	73
3.2.3 Bioenergy Technology Related Energy Security Issues	74
3.2.4 Geopolitics of Bioenergy and Energy Security	76
3.2.5 Local Issues	79
3.2.5.1 Lifeline Energy Needs	79
3.2.5.2 Pollution	80
3.2.5.3 Water Use	80
3.2.5.4 Economics, Jobs and Livelihoods	81
3.2.5.5 Women and Children, Education and Development	82
3.2.5.6 Health Impacts	82
3.2.5.7 Co-Benefits and Tradeoffs	82
3.2.5.8 Research Needs and Sustainability	83
3.3 Conclusions and Recommendations	83
3.4 The Much Needed Science	84
3.4.1 Availability of Sustainable Biomass	85
3.4.2 Conversion Technologies	85
3.4.3 Needed Science for Bioenergy to Achieve Maximum Benefit to Energy Security	86
Acknowledgments	86
Literature Cited	87

4. Bioenergy and Food Security	90
Highlights	91
Summary	91
4.1 Introduction	93
4.1.1 Relevance	93
4.1.2 What is Food Security?	97
4.1.3 Ethical Principles	97
4.1.4 What has changed? - Emerging Evidence on Bioenergy and Food Security	99
4.1.5 Background and Preconditions	101
4.2 Key Findings	102
4.2.1 Food Security, Bioenergy, Land Availability and Biomass Resources	102
4.2.1.1 Increasing Crop Production versus Increased Demand for Primary Foodstuffs	102
4.2.1.2 Global Change	105
4.2.1.3 Land and Water Availability	106
4.2.2 Interplay between Bioenergy and Food Security	107
4.2.2.1 Analysis of Food Security in the Bioenergy Context	107
4.2.2.2 Availability	109
4.2.2.3 Access	109
4.2.2.4 Utilization	110
4.2.2.5 Stability and Resilience	110
4.2.3 Causal Linkages: Bioenergy, Rural Agricultural Development and Food Security	112
4.2.4 Governance	116
4.2.4.1 Introduction	116
4.2.4.2 Implementation, Scale and Resource Ownership in Relation to Food Security	118
4.3 Conclusions	120
4.4 Recommendations for Research, Capacity Building, Communication and Policy Making	124
4.5 The Much Needed Science	127
4.5.1 Farming practice and management in relation to food security	127
4.5.2 Food security indicators and monitoring	127
4.5.3 Governance including regulations, local and global policies and certification	129
4.5.4 Finance and investment models	129
4.5.5 Communication and mutual learning	129
Acknowledgments	130
Literature Cited	130

5. Environmental and Climate Security	138
Highlights	139
Summary	140
5.1 Introduction	143
5.1.1 Security is Important	143
5.1.2 Key Opportunities and Challenges	144
5.2 Key Aspects	145
5.2.1 Climate Change	145
5.2.2 Land Use Change (LUC)	146
5.2.3 Ecosystem Change	149
5.2.3.1 Agricultural, Forest and Grassland Landscapes	149
5.2.3.2 Coastal Areas	150
5.2.3.3 Marginal and Degraded Lands	151
5.3 Environmental Security	153
5.3.1 Biodiversity Related Impacts	154
5.3.2 Water Supply and Quality Impacts	156
5.3.2.1 Impacts on Water Resource Abundance	156
5.3.2.2 Impacts on Water Quality	158
5.3.2.3 Selecting Watershed Appropriate Bioenergy Systems	159
5.3.3 Soil Quality and Nutrient Cycling Impacts	159
5.4 Climate Security	164
5.5 Governance and Policy Guidelines	168
5.5.1 Underlying Causes of Deforestation	169
5.5.2 Guidelines for Social and Environmental Factors – Biodiversity, Water	170
5.6 Conclusions	171
5.7 Recommendations	171
5.8 The Much Needed Science	175
Literature Cited	175

6. Sustainable Development and Innovation	184
Highlights	185
Summary	185
Examples of Innovative and Integrated Bioenergy Systems	186
6.1 Introduction	187
6.2 Bioenergy Systems: the Innovation Perspective	190
6.2.1 Innovation and Biofuels	192
6.2.2 Innovative Tools and Methodology Issues	192
6.2.3 Bioenergy and Food Security: an Innovative Approach	196
6.3 Need for Increased Capacity in Data Gathering and Analysis	197
6.4 Capacity Building and Sustainable Bioenergy	201
6.5 Need for Flexible Financial Models	202
6.6 Relevance of Consultation and Communication	206
6.6.1 Public Participation - An Overview	206
6.6.2 Key Principles of Stakeholder Engagement	207
6.6.3 Stakeholder Participation in the Bioenergy Sector	208
6.6.4 Public Perception and Communicating Good Practices	210
6.7 Final Remarks	211
6.8 Recommendations	212
6.9 The Much Needed Science	214
Literature Cited	214

7. The Much Needed Science: Filling the Gaps for Sustainable Bioenergy Expansion	218
Integration of Sciences for Bioenergy to Achieve its Maximum Benefits	219
7.1 Policy	221
7.2 Sustainable Biomass Supply	222
7.3 Feedstocks	223
7.4 Logistics	224
7.5 Technologies	225
7.6 Exploring Social and Environmental Benefits	226

Section IV - Background Chapters	229
8. Perspectives on Bioenergy	230
Highlights	231
Summary	231
8.1 Introduction	232
8.2 The Upward Trajectory of Biofuels	233
8.3 Low-Carbon Heat and Power	244
8.4 The Unrealized Potential of Biogas	245
8.5 Cellulosic Biofuels Have Arrived	246
8.6 Diesel and Jet-fuel from Sugars	247
8.7 Biofuels Done Right	248
8.8 Abundant Idle Land for Bioenergy Production	249
8.9 Bioenergy Risks and Tradeoffs	251
Acknowledgments	253
Literature Cited	253

9. Land and Bioenergy	258
Highlights	259
Summary	260
9.1 Introduction	260
9.2 Key Findings	262
9.2.1 Global Land Availability and Projected Demand for Food, Fiber and Infrastructure	262
9.2.1.1 Land Demand	262
9.2.1.2 Current Land Demand for Bioenergy	264
9.2.1.3 Land Availability	266
9.2.2 Illustrative Example: Brazilian Land Use and Potential Availability	271
9.2.3 Land Use Intensities for Bioenergy Supply	275
9.2.3.1 Biofuels	275
9.2.3.2 Bioelectricity	276
9.2.3.3 Bio-Heat	276
9.2.4 Dynamics of Bioenergy Supply	279
9.2.5 Biomass Energy Supply: The Answer Depends on How the Question Is Framed	282
9.2.5.1 Residual Biomass Arising from Non-Bioenergy Activities	283
9.2.5.2 Separate Analysis of Food and Bioenergy Production Systems	284
9.2.6 Integrated Analysis of Food and Bioenergy Production Systems	285
9.2.6.1 Sustainable Intensification	286
9.2.7 Estimates of Bioenergy Potential	288
9.3 Discussion and Conclusions	289
9.4. Recommendations	293
9.5. The Much Needed Science	294
Literature Cited	295

10. Feedstocks for Biofuels and Bioenergy	302
Highlights	303
Summary	304
10.1 Introduction	306
10.2 Maize and Other Grains	308
10.3 Sugarcane	314
10.4 Perennial Grasses	318
10.5 Agave	322
10.6 Oil Crops	324
10.7 Forests and Short Rotation Coppice (SRC)	327
10.8 Algae	331
10.9 Conclusions	335
10.10 Recommendations and Much Needed Science	336
Literature Cited	337

11. Feedstock Supply Chains	348
Highlights	349
Summary	350
11.1 Introduction	350
11.2 Key Features of Biomass Supply Chains	351
11.3 Biomass Crops and their Supply Chains	352
11.4 Typical Layout of the Biomass Supply Chains	353
11.4.1 Harvesting and Collection	353
11.4.2 Transportation	354
11.4.3 Storage	355
11.4.4 Pretreatment	356
11.5 Challenges, Best Practices and Key Lessons in Biomass Supply Chains	357
11.6 Case Studies of Biomass Supply Chains	358
11.6.1 Sugarcane	358
11.6.2 Eucalyptus	361
11.6.3 Elephant Grass/Miscanthus	362
11.6.4 Palm Oil	363
11.7 Concluding Remarks	364
11.8 Recommendations	365
11.9 The Much Needed Science	366
Literature Cited	367

12. Conversion Technologies for Biofuels and Their Use	374
Highlights	375
Summary	378
12.1 Introduction	381
12.1.1 Environmental and Sustainability Context	383
12.1.2 Technology Development and Deployment Context	390
12.2 Key Findings	394
12.2.1 Biofuels and Sustainability Are Systems Dependent: Scale, Nature and Location	397
12.2.1.1 Ethanol	403
12.2.1.1.1 Maize and Other Grains—Dry Mill Corn Refining Industry Emerged for Ethanol, Feed, and Biodiesel	404
12.2.1.1.2 Sugarcane Biorefineries Make Ethanol, Sugar, and Power the Grid (mostly based on Walter et al. 2014)	405
12.2.1.1.3 Scale—Large and Larger, with Small-Scale Ethanol Production Evolving	407
12.2.1.1.4 Lignocellulosic Ethanol Using Bioconversion Processes in Biorefineries	408
12.2.1.2 Other Alcohols, Fuel Precursors, and Hydrocarbons from Biochemical Processing	413
12.2.1.3 Biodiesel—Chemical Processing of Plant Oils or Fats Matures—Small and Large Plants	416
12.2.1.4 Renewable Diesel—Hybrid Chemical and Thermochemical Processing from Plant Oils or Fats to Hydrocarbons	417
12.2.1.5 Hydrocarbons, Alcohols, Ethers, Chemicals, and Power from Biomass and Waste Gasification—Flexible Biorefineries to Multiple Products	417
12.2.1.5.1 Catalytic Upgrading of Syngas—Commercial and Developing Processes—Could Lead to CO2 Capture and Storage	418
12.2.1.5.2 Bioprocessing Upgrading—Hybrid Processing	421
12.2.1.6 Liquid Fuels from Biomass Pyrolysis—Multiple Scales for Centralized and Decentralized Production of Bio-Oils and Upgrading	422
12.2.1.7 Biofuels from Forest Products and Pulp and Paper Biorefineries—Old and New	425
12.2.1.8 The Commercialization of Advanced Biofuels and Biorefineries	426
12.2.1.8.1 Partnerships Created Across the Globe Demonstrate Multiple Technically Feasible Options for Advanced Biofuels and Many Types of Biorefineries	427
12.2.1.8.2 Estimated Production Costs of the Porfolios of Advanced Technologies	429
12.2.2 Biofuels Utilization in Transport	431
12.2.2.1 Ethanol Use Increased	431
12.2.2.1.1 Low and Mid-level Blends Used in More Than Fifty Countries	432
12.2.2.1.2 Straight Ethanol and Flexible Fuel Vehicles in Brazil, U.S., and Sweden	435
12.2.2.2 Other Alcohols Are Less Volatile but Have Lower Octane Numbers	435
12.2.2.3 Biodiesel Is Blended with Diesel, Some Infrastructure and Distribution Issues	437
12.2.2.4 Biomass-Derived Hydrocarbon Fuels Reach a Larger Fraction of the Barrel of Oil	438
12.2.2.4.1 Hydrotreated Vegetable Oils or Renewable Diesel is a Hydrocarbon and Can Come from Many Feedstocks	438
12.2.2.4.2 Developing Bio-Jet Fuels Need a High Density Low Carbon Fuel	439
12.3 Conclusions	440
12.4 Recommendations for Research, Capacity Building, and Policy Making	444
Capacity building recommendations	445
Policy recommendations	445
Acknowledgments	446
Literature Cited	446
Notes	461

13. Agriculture and Forestry Integration	468
Highlights	469
Summary	469
13.1 Introduction	469
13.2 Forestry/Agriculture Interface	470
13.3 New Paradigms in Ecological Land Management	472
13.3.1 High Productivity Polyculture Systems	473
13.3.2 High Productivity Monoculture Systems	475
13.3.3 The Green Economy	476
13.4 Integrated Landscape and Bioenergy System Design	479
13.5 Integrated Natural Forests, Planted Forests, Agroforestry, and Restored and Artificial Prairie Systems as Sources of Biomass - Potentials and Challenges	480
13.6 Conclusions and Policy Recommendations	482
13.7 Recommendations	483
13.8 The Much Needed Science	484
Acknowledgments	485
Literature Cited	485

14. Case Studies	490
Highlights	491
Summary	492
14.1 Introduction	493
14.2 Key Findings	494
14.2.1 The Brazilian Experience with Sugarcane Ethanol	494
14.2.2 Surplus Power Generation in Sugar/Ethanol Mills: Cases in Brazil and Mauritius	497
14.2.3 The African Experience	503
14.2.4 The Asia Experience	506
14.2.5 Biofuels from Agricultural Residues: Assessing Sustainability in the USA Case	512
14.2.6 Comparison of Biogas Production in Germany, California and the United Kingdom	514
14.2.7 Wood Pellets and Municipal Solid Waste Power in Scandinavia	518
14.3 Overall Conclusions	520
14.4 Recommendations	521
14.5 The Much Needed Science	522
Literature Cited	522

15. Social Considerations	528
Highlights	529
Summary	529
15.1 Introduction	530
15.2 Review of Legal Frameworks and Social Considerations in Bioenergy Production around the World	532
15.3 Land, Water and Natural Resources	535
15.4 Employment, Rural Opportunities and Livelihood Impacts	536
15.5 Skills and Training	537
15.6 Poverty, Health and Food Production	538
15.7 Land Rights, Gender and Vulnerable Groups	540
15.8 Societal Perception, Corporate Sustainability Reporting and Monitoring	542
15.9 Conclusions and Recommendations	543
15.10 The Much Needed Science	544
Literature Cited	545

16. Biofuel Impacts on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services	554
Highlights	555
Summary	556
16.1 Introduction	556
16.2 Key Findings	557
16.2.1 Identification and Conservation of Priority Biodiversity Areas are Paramount	557
16.2.1.1 Effects of Feedstock Production on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services are Context Specific	558
16.2.1.2 Location-Specific Management of Feedstock Production Systems should be Implemented to Maintain Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services	560
16.2.2 Biofuel Feedstock Production Interactions with Biodiversity	560
16.2.2.1 Impacts of Land-Use Change and Production Intensification	560
16.2.2.2 Invasion of Exotic Species introduced through Biofuel Production Activities	565
16.2.3 Ecosystem Services and Biofuel Feedstock Production	565
16.2.4 Mitigating Impacts of Biofuel Production on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services	565
16.2.4.1 Zoning	569
16.2.4.2 Wildlife Friendly Management Practices	569
16.2.4.3 Biodiversity and Environmental Monitoring	570
16.3 Conclusions	570
16.4 Recommendations	571
Acknowledgments	571
Literature Cited	571

17. Greenhouse Gas Emissions from Bioenergy	582
Highlights	583
Summary	583
17.1 Introduction	584
17.2 Key Findings	585
17.2.1 Life Cycle Assessments of GHG Emissions from Biofuels	585
17.2.1.1 LCA Issues in GHG Emissions	585
17.2.1.2 LCA Results of Greenhouse Gas Emissions for Biofuels	587
17.2.1.2.1 LCA Results for Commercial Liquid Biofuels	588
17.2.1.2.2 LCA Results for Solid Biofuels	592
17.2.2 Land Use Changes and GHG Emissions	594
17.2.2.1 Models Results: iLUC Factors	595
17.2.2.2 Biofuels iLUC	598
17.2.2.3 Translating Land Use Changes into GHG Emissions	599
17.2.2.4 Options for Mitigating iLUC from a Policy Making Perspective	601
17.2.3 Bioenergy Systems, Timing of GHG Emissions and Removals,and non-GHG Climate Change Effects	602
17.2.4 Funding Innovation: Data Needed to Support Policies and Strategic Decisions	603
17.3 Conclusions	606
17.4 Recommendations	608
17.5 The Much Needed Science	608
Literature Cited	609

18. Soils and Water	618
Highlights	619
Summary	619
18.1 Introduction	621
18.1.1 Interconnectivity of Water and Soil	621
18.1.2 Metrics	622
18.2 Water Impacts of Modern Bioenergy	626
18.2.1 Water Impacts Current and Novel feedstocks	627
18.2.1.1 Annual Bioenergy Crops	627
18.2.1.2 Perennial and Semi-Perennial Crops	627
18.2.1.3 Forest Biomass in Long Rotation	628
18.2.1.4 Organic Waste and Residues	628
18.2.1.5 Algae	628
18.2.2 Water Impacts of Conversion Technologies	629
18.3 Soil Impacts of Modern Bioenergy	630
18.3.1 Soil Impacts of Current and Novel Feedstocks	630
18.3.1.1 Annual Bioenergy Crops	631
18.3.1.2 Perennial and Semi-Perennial Crops	631
18.3.1.3 Forest Biomass in Long Rotation	631
18.3.1.4 Waste Biomass	632
18.3.2 Phytoremediation and Recovery of Marginal Soils	633
18.4 Anticipating Changes Associated with Expansion of Bioenergy Production	633
18.4.1 Effects of Land Cover Change	633
18.4.1.1 Effects of Land Cover Change on Water	634
18.4.1.2 Effects of Land Cover Change on Soils	638
18.4.2 Effects of Changes in Residue Management and Irrigation Use and Practice	638
18.4.2.1 Effects of Changes in Residue Management	638
18.4.2.2 Effects of Changes in Irrigation Use and Practice	639
18.5 Minimizing Impact of Bioenergy Production	640
18.5.1 Selecting Appropriate Bioenergy Systems for Ecosystems	640
18.5.2 Landscape-Level Planning and Mixed Systems	641
18.5.3 Evolution in Best Management Practices	641
18.5.4 Using Wastes in Bioenergy Systems to Improve Water and Soil Quality, Close the Nutrient Cycle, and Recover Energy	642
18.5.4.1 Fertirrigation	642
18.5.4.2 Municipal Solid Waste and Wastewater Digestion (Biogas)	644
18.5.4.3 Ash and Biochar	645
18.6 Policy and Governance	645
18.7 Conclusions	646
18.8 Recommendations	647
18.9 The Much Needed Science	648
Literature Cited	649

19. Sustainability Certification	660
Summary	661
19.1 Introduction	661
19.2 The Rationale for Sustainability Certification and Baseline Sustainability Principles	664
19.2.1 Regulatory Motivations For Certification	664
19.2.2 Types of Sustainability Certifications	665
19.2.2.1 Forest Certification Systems	665
19.2.2.2 Agricultural Certification Systems	666
19.2.2.3 Biofuel/Bioliquids Certification Systems	666
19.2.2.4 Wood Pellet Certification Systems	666
19.2.2.5 Summary of Environmental and Social Indicators	667
19.3 Implementation Challenges for Bioenergy Certification Standards	668
19.3.1 Biodiversity Measurement and Protection	668
19.3.2 Water Quality	670
19.3.3 "Shed" Level Sustainability Assessments	670
19.3.4 Forest Carbon Accounting	671
19.4 Accounting for “Indirect” Effects	672
19.5 Standards Governance and Social Sustainability	672
19.6 The Efficacy of and Challenges to International Harmonization	675
19.7 Conclusions	675
19.8 Highlights and Recommendations	677
19.9 The Much Needed Science	678
Literature Cited	678

20. Bioenergy Economics and Policies	682
Highlights	683
Summary	683
20.1 Introduction	683
20.2 Key Findings	685
20.2.1 Economic Developments in the Bioenergy Market	685
20.2.2 Bioenergy Policies are a Key Driver	688
20.2.3 Analyses Framework of Bioenergy within the Emerging Bioeconomy	690
20.2.4 Arguments for Policy Interventions	694
20.2.5 Economic Impact of Government Policies	699
20.3 Conclusion	702
20.4 Recommendations (Policy)	703
20.5 The Much Needed Science	704
Literature Cited	704

21. Biomass Resources, Energy Access and Poverty Reduction	710
Highlights	711
Summary	711
21.1 Introduction	711
21.2 Poverty, Inequality and Poverty Reduction	712
21.3 Bioenergy and Poverty Reduction. International Programs	717
21.4 Technologies: Biogas, Cooking Stoves, Minigrids	719
21.5 Energy Access and Rural Development: the Role of Modern Bioenergy	721
21.6 Case Studies: Improved Cookstoves for Energy Access, the EnDev Program in Kenya	723
21.7 Cross Sector-Synergies: Including Investment and Institutions	725
21.8 Conclusions and Recommendations	725
21.9 The Much Needed Science	726
Literature Cited	726

Section V	731
Countries and regions cited in SCOPE Bioenergy & Sustainability	733
SCOPE Bioenergy & Sustainability Keywords	734